This
week I will be reviewing two chapters of the book e-Learning and the Science of
Instruction, by Ruth Clark and Richard Mayer.
This is a book which I am using as a resource in a Principles of Design
and Management in Distance Education class at Liberty University.
Chapter
Three
Chapter
three covers application of something the book terms the Multimedia
Principle. The basic principle of this
chapter can be summed up in one brief sentence.
According to Clark and Mayer, the use of textual instruction in
conjunction with the integration of instructional graphics is significantly
more effective than the use of textual instruction alone (2008).
Beyond
this basic principle are a host of details which provide guidance in the
application of the Multimedia Principle. For example, some graphics are more
effective than others. Decorative
graphics and representational graphics which are just a simple visual
representation of an object, are the least effective usage. Optimal efficacy is obtained when textual
instruction is coupled with graphics which demonstrate relationships between
processes or concepts . These types of
graphics are called transformational, organizational, or relational graphics (Clark,
Mayer, 2008).
There
are some very specific reasons the authors support the use of dual
instructional formats. The first has to
do with cognitive learning theory. The
authors subscribe to an active learning theory as opposed to an information
acquisition theory. According to this
belief, presentation of the instructional information is not adequate. The instructional goal for the educator is to
launch the learner toward processing of the information in conjunction with
previously mastered concepts to achieve understanding of the relationships the
new concepts have with the old.
The
second reason is that research indicates that textual and graphic instructions
combined are simply more effective (Clark, Mayer, 2008). In virtually every instance, studies found
that students mastered concepts more thoroughly and performed better on tests
when provided combined instruction than students provided only textual
instruction.
The
ramifications of the concepts in this chapter are significant. For many years, direct instruction and
traditional adherence to information acquisition theory have led to education
primarily as an oral or written presentation of concepts (Gutek, 1995). Though this educational philosophy can lead
to memorization of facts without understanding of the underlying concepts, the
ability to regurgitate and recall facts works well with standardized testing
procedures, which has lead to the use of information acquisition theory well
beyond it’s ability to be justified by research.
Use
of multiple presentation formats is vital especially in a distance learning
environment. In a traditional format,
educators can spontaneously provide visual cues for students, such as hand
gestures or diagrams on chalk boards that can serve the same functions as the
graphics described in this chapter. The
unavailability of spontaneity means the distance educator must be more
purposeful in their pursuit of this principle because the graphics must be
designed well in advance.
It is encouraging as a
parent and educator to see such a foundational change occurring in the
application of modern educational theory.
As more and more studies are published that support a constructivist
theory of learning in which learners actively build their knowledge, educators
will find that the Multimedia Principle will draw learners toward more active
engagement of topics and widespread application seems a foregone conclusion.
Chapter
Four
Chapter
four is the discussion of a principle that relates closely to the Multimedia
Principle discussed above. The
Contiguity Principle is a guideline for the application of the Multimedia
Principle. In its basic form, it states
that textual and graphic instruction, when combined, should be presented in an
integrated fashion in order to achieve near simultaneity (Clark, Mayer, 2008).
This
principle comes into play in several ways.
Presentations in which an audio portion is presented first, followed by
a text and graphic representation of a concept would be an example of a failure
to apply this principle. Presenting
both formats in conjunction with each other helps students to make connections
and build relationships between concepts.
Timely feedback is another area in which benefits of the Contiguity
Principle are made apparent.
In
hindsight, this principle seems obvious.
Peruse the many presentations available to educators today, and it
becomes apparent, however, that designers of many learning objects are not
considering contiguity as a tool.
Learners are required to flip from screen to screen or page to page to
make connections, or close pop-up windows to view necessary information.
A
good portion of an educator’s job is communication, and this boils down to a
basic communications principle as well. A
good communicator considers the perception of the audience, the intention of
the communication, the context and the format before initiating a communication
(Seiler & Beal, 2008). Usually, the
goal for an educator is to help students make connections with concepts, and it
is only common sense to make those connections as easy as possible by
minimizing the lengths a learner must go to in order to make them.
References
Clark, R., Mayer, R.,
(2008). E-Learning and the
Science of Instruction, Chapter 3,
Applying the Multimedia Principle, San Francisco: Pfieffer
Gutek,
G, (1995), A History of the Western Educational Experience, 2nd Ed.,
Chapter 13, Froebel and Montessori: Early
Childhood Education, Waveland Press Inc., Long Grove I
Seiler,
W., Beal, M. (2008). Communication: Making Connections, 7th Ed., Chapter 1, Connecting Process and Principles,
Pearson Education Inc., Boston
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